Philological Tools Overview
Eight Philological Tools are available to explore the vocabulary, grammar, syntax, usage, and word frequencies of ancient Greek. They are:
- Morphological Analysis--analyzes the grammatical forms of Greek words. Enter an inflected Greek form to find out its possible morphological analyses and what dictionary entries it might come from. Not only will beginning and intermediate students of the Greek language find the morphological analysis helpful, but advanced students also will find this tool indispensible in determining the precise dictionary entry for a form. Selecting English text or proper nouns will result in a message that no analysis is offered for this word.
- Greek-English Lexicon--The Liddell-Scott Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon with etymological links.
Enter a Greek word in its dictionary form to find its definitions. The Perseus Greek-English Lexicon is based on the Liddell-Scott Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon. You must provide the exact spelling to locate an entry. You can use the Morphological Analysis tool or the Greek Dictionary Entry Search tool to help locate the right spelling. Looking for an English word or an inflected Greek form in the Greek-English Lexicon will result in a message that the selected text is not in the dictionary.
- Greek Word Search--finds the number of occurrences of a Greek word in a given author with links to the texts.
Enter a dictionary entry or a string to find the texts containing it in Perseus. Greek Word Search gives the citations for each word and links you directly with the passage. Thus, you can, for example, search for f¡rv and retrieve oàsv and ³negkon, or you can search for -pemp- and retrieve p¡mpomen, ¦pempe, Žpop¡mpei, ktl. Searching for English text will result in a message that the lemma is not used in the selected author's works.
- Greek Words in Proximity--finds occurrences of one list of Greek words near another list.
With this tool, you can make two lists of dictionary entries and identify all passages in which any possible form from list 1 appears within a given number of words of any possible form from list 2.
- English-Greek Word Search--finds occurrences of an English word or string within the definitions of the Greek-English Lexicon.
This tool allows you to search for words within a semantic category. For example, suppose you are interested in Greek words for "money" or "ship" or "statue." You can use this tool to locate probable equivalents and convert the Liddell-Scott Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon into a rough, but powerful, English-Greek lexicon. The English-Greek Word Search searches in the Greek lexicon for words whose definition contains the selected word. Any italicized text in a dictionary entry from the Liddell-Scott Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon is treated as a definition, and in using this tool you are, in effect, consulting an index of English words from this lexicon.
- Greek Dictionary Entry Search--finds a string of Greek letters in dictionary entries without using accents.
You can use the Greek Dictionary Entry Search to locate individual dictionary entries or groups of dictionary entries. Use the Greek Dictionary Entry Search to find out precisely how a Greek dictionary entry is spelled (-ss- or -tt-, -ia or -ih, for example). Again, you can locate all dictionary entries that contain a certain string: those ending in -frvn or -siw, or that contain the string -olb- (e.g., ŽnolbÛa or eëolbow), or -pemp- (e.g., Žntekp¡mpv, diap¡mpv, dæspemptow). Finally, if you want to do a Greek Word Search, but lack a convenient way of typing accents because you do not have SMK GreekKeys installed, you can obtain the form with the Greek Dictionary Entry Search.
- Greek Word Frequencies--calculates frequencies of a list of Greek words for all authors in the database.
The Greek Word Frequencies tool displays the statistical frequencies with which a particular Greek word is used among all the Greek authors in Perseus. This tool will provide you with the totals for a list of words, often with interesting results: A search in the Greek Word Frequencies for aàlourow, "cat" produces 7 instances for all of Greek within Perseus. Perhaps not unsurpringly, six fall in Herodotus 2, a book devoted to Egypt. The seventh is in Aristophanes; in what context will aàlourow appear?
- Greek Word Freqs By Author--calculates frequencies of a list of Greek words for individual authors.
The Greek Word Freqs By Author tool allows you to compose a list of words and then see which and how often these words occur in a particular author. Because Perseus keeps the word list in its memory, the query can be repeated for each author in the database.
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Key Terms: Words, Strings, Forms And Dictionary Entries
The Philological Tools provide support for quite powerful and sophisticated analysis of the textual source in Perseus. Before using these tools, it is important to distinguish among several different kinds of "word."
This paragraph contains 133 words (counting the numbers). If you read it through from start to finish, counting each word as you read it, you would end up with a total of 133. In some contexts, however, we might mean that the entire paragraph contains only 74 "unique" words: i.e., the English word "the" would count only once, no matter how often it showed up in the text. Again, we must take account of grammatically inflected forms. Do "went," "gone" and "going" all count as unique words or only as forms of the verb "to go"? In Perseus, word-count frequencies are a total of all words in the text, repeated and inflected. Words in the lexical tools are reached via the form given in their dictionary entry headings, rather than their inflected forms.
The following definitions will be useful:
Strings: Any collection of letters strung together is a "string." A string can be a full word (e.g., "philological") or a word fragment ("philo-", "-logic-", "-ical") or both ("logic" is both a word in its own right and a substring of "philological"). Virtually all of the tools developed for searching Greek texts (and many of those for English as well) search not for words, but for strings embedded in words. Thus "go" will retrieve "goes" and "gone" but not "went," and there is no convenient way to locate all forms of an irregular word (e.g., "is", "was", "be" etc.). While this problem may be a nuisance in English (which retains relatively few endings), in a highly inflected language such as classical Greek, string based searching can be especially frustrating. The remedy for this is Perseus's Morphological database, which has the ability to trace the irregular forms to their dictionary entry.
Inflected Forms and Dictionary Entries: The forms "goes", "going" and "gone" are all inflected forms that belong to the same word, "go." The philological tools distinguish sharply between inflected forms and their dictionary entries. One of the major achievements of the Perseus database is that it allows users to deal not only with strings and inflected forms but with dictionary entries as well: thus, you can perform the Greek equivalent of asking for "go" and retrieve "goes", "gone", and "went."
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A note on typing Greek: You will find that the ability to type correctly accented Greek is indispensible in making the most efficient use of the Philological Tools. This is because Perseus conducts searches by looking for the correctly accented dictionary entry. Platform Independent Perseus supports versions of SMK GreekKeys for the Macintosh System 7 or greater, Windows 95 and Windows 3.1. If you do not have an up to date version of GreekKeys, we recommend cutting and pasting Greek text into a field as a workaround. Another way to obtain the correctly accented dictionary entry quickly is via the Greek Dictionary Entry Search, described below.
The SMK GreekKeys font must be installed in your system. Information on ordering GreekKeys may be found here. The Greek characters generally correspond to the Roman ones, with y=theta, j=xi, s=non-final sigma, w=final sigma, c=psi, v=omega. The accents live "under" the numbers and are typed in combination with the Option key before the vowel is typed.
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Description and Limitations Of The Philological Tools
Underlying the Philological Tools is a morphological database that was created by parsing every Greek word in the Perseus Primary Texts and storing the results. In it there are 3.4 million words, but only 260,000 unique strings -- in other words, each inflected form shows up on the average 13 times. Each of these forms has been processed by the morphological analysis system developed by the Perseus Project. Its tables of nominal and verbal stems are based upon those in the Liddell-Scott Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon. While we have added many words to our morphological database that are not in Liddell-Scott, there are still some words in Platform Independent Perseus for which we do not have any morphological analysis. This will change in coming years as we extract morphological information from the larger Greek Lexicon, the ninth edition of Liddell-Scott-Jones.
The database provides a foundation for the Philological Tools and allows you to perform two strategic functions. First, you can analyze any word in a text (except all but 31% of proper nouns), and second, you can determine all instances of a Greek word across the range of texts. Together, these two strategies allow you to investigate Greek words in Perseus texts with greater precision than has been possible heretofore, even with electronic tools.
N. B. 1 The Morphological Analysis tool can only recognize forms. It is not aware of the syntax of a sentence. If a form has more than one possible analysis, the only thing that the morphological analyzer can do is to list all applicable parses. Therefore, several of the Philological Tools display two sets of statistical results: one that takes into account only unambiguous forms with one possible parse, and another that includes all forms, ambiguous and unambiguous. Thus, faced with a form such as aÞsxænú, the Morphological Analysis tool simply reports that this could be either the dative singular of the noun aÞsxænh, "shame," or one of several forms of the verb aÞsxænv, "to cause shame." The English equivalent is to recognize "fly" as either a noun or a verb but to leave it to the user to sort out the ambiguity between these two choices by using the context. It is important to keep this in mind when working with the Philological Tools.
N. B. 2 All of the Philological Tools allow you to type in your own word or string, in Greek or English (as appropriate). You must be precise in typing accents and diacritical marks for the morphological tools to recognize the word (unless otherwise specified). It is often more efficient to select text from within another Perseus resource (Greek or English text depending on the tool to be activated), and then to choose the desired tool from the Links menu. If any text is selected when a tool is activated, that tool will try to act on the selected text.
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Calculating Frequencies
Because the length of one author's corpora varies with respect to other authors', a dictionary entry whose forms appear, say, 100 times in Demosthenes but 30 times in Lysias is actually more common in Lysias, because our corpus of Demosthenes is five times larger than that of Lysias (c. 300,000 vs. 60,000 words). For this reason, Perseus reports, wherever possible, not only the instances (i.e., the absolute frequency, or how many times a dictionary entry actually appears in a given author), but also the relative frequency (frequency per 10,000 words). Thus, we take into consideration the differing sizes of the texts in Platform Independent Perseus so that you can compare the frequency of words more effectively. For each dictionary entry in each text, we determine the rate at which it appears for every 10,000 words in a given text. In the above example, the frequencies/10,000 words would be 3.33 for Demosthenes and 5 for Lysias.
Some inflected forms are, however, "lexically ambiguous," i.e., they can come from more than one dictionary entry (e.g., Greek aÞsxænú can be an inflected form of either the noun aÞsxænh, "shame," or of the verb aÞsxænv, "to cause shame"). Each frequency thus has both a maximum and a minimum. The maximum "instances" and "freqs/10,000 words" assumes that all possible inflected forms of a dictionary entry really do belong to that entry (if you are searching for the verb aÞsxænv, assume that aÞsxænú is a verbal form). The minimum figure assumes that none of the lexically ambiguous inflected forms belong to the dictionary entry (if you are searching for the verb aÞsxænv, assume that aÞsxænú is not an inflected form of this verb). If the maximum and minimum frequencies are the same, then all the possible forms of the dictionary entry are lexically unambiguous. On the other hand, if the maximum and minimum frequencies are different, then you will have to use your judgment to determine the true frequency of the dictionary entry.
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Related Tools Button
Since the eight philological tools are all in the Links menu, they are available anywhere in Perseus. Some of these philological tools are, however, particularly useful in different positions, and each of the eight philological tools contains a Related Tools pop-up menu in the upper right hand corner of the screen. The Related Tools menu connects directly with other philological tools which are particularly relevant to the tool that you are currently using.
Relation Between Pairs of Philological Tools
The eight Philological Tools are functionally linked to each other for maximum flexibility. They divide into four basic groups:
- Morphological Analysis and Greek-English Lexicon: When working with a text you can use the Morphological Analysis tool to find out the grammatical function of a form and the Greek-English Lexicon to find out its meaning.
- Greek Word Search and Greek Words in Proximity: These tools allow you to locate passages in the texts in which one or more particular dictionary entries appear.
- English-Greek Word Search and Greek Dictionary Entry Search: These tools allow you to locate Greek words in the lexicon for further study.
- Greek Word Frequencies and Greek Word Freqs By Author: These tools allow you to explore quantitative differences in usage between different authors, genres and periods.
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Morphological Analysis Tool
The Morphological Analysis tool parses Greek word forms, showing the form of the word under which the word is found in the lexicon, sometimes called the lemma, here called the dictionary entry. The Morphological Analysis tool is available directly from Primary Text displays through the Analyze button, from the Links menu, and from the Gateway via the Tools & References icon.
This tool retrieves a morphological analysis, not a syntactic analysis, of the Greek word. If the form you are analyzing could be formed from more than one word, the Morphological Analysis tool will display all possible dictionary entries and analyses. It does not indicate which one is correct for the particular form you selected.
If you have chosen Morphological Analysis from the Tools & References Index or the Links menu, you must enter a word to analyze. If you are in a Primary Text and want to analyze a word, select it and click the Analyze button. The tool will automatically parse that word. The examples used below will trace through the analysis of words selected from a Primary Text and from Philological Tools.
Task: Analyze forms from Pindar's First Olympian Ode.
Go to Pindar First Olympian in the Primary Texts by choosing Lookup from the Links menu. Type Pind. O. 1.1 into the box and press Return.
Select the Greek word garæen in line 3.
Click the button Analyze, upper right. The Morphological Analysis card appears with the selected form garæen in the box above, the dictionary entry ghræv in boldface type in the display field, and the grammatical analysis "pres inf act" below.
To find the meaning of ghræv, choose Greek-English Lexicon from the pop-up menu Related Tools.
N. B. 1 In some cases, an analysis will turn up more than one dictionary entry. Type bña into the Form field, and click Analyze. Select
bña, bo‹v, or boèw, and then choose Greek-English Lexicon from the pop-up menu Related Tools.
N. B. 2 Remember that when you type Greek into the Morphological Analysis tool, you must be precise in typing accents and diacritical marks.
Related Tools
The Related Tools pop-up button in the upper right hand corner relates the Morphological Analysis tool to other Philological Tools. If you select text from the Morphological Analysis before choosing another tool, the new tool will apply itself to the selection.
If you do not select a Greek word from Morphological Analysis, by default Related Tools will look up the top analysis first. If there is more than one analysis, specify which analysis you want defined by first selecting it, then chosing Greek-English Lexicon from the pop-up menu Related Tools.
Limitations
- The Morphological Analysis Tool is not context sensitive. Therefore:
- It makes no attempt to determine whether a form such as aÞsxænú is a substantive or a verb.
- If it sees a form such as p¡mpete, it recognizes this as a possible present indicative or imperative, but it also reports that this could be an unaugmented Epic or Ionic. Even if you are reading an Attic author such as Demosthenes, it still reports the possible Epic and Ionic interpretation because you may, for example, be looking at a form from a piece of quoted poetry.
- The Morphological Analysis Tool seeks every possible morphological analysis for every form that it examines. With 30,000 stems, 10,000 inflections and rules for coping with several Greek dialects, some of the morphological analyses can be surprising.
- The Morphological Analysis Tool does not systematically cover proper names. It can recognize 22,000 of the 32,000 proper names in Platform Independent Perseus, a success rate of 69%. Our morphological database is based on the morphological information from the Liddell-Scott Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon, a reference tool which covers only a small number of proper names. While we have added morphological information for over 10,000 additional words, we continue to systematically add proper names.
- The Morphological Analysis tool has been taught to recognize many words that are not in the Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon, but it still is not complete. It can recognize 223,000 out of the 228,000 unique strings in Platform Independent Perseus, a success rate of 98%.
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Greek-English Lexicon
The Greek-English Lexicon contains the Greek and English definitions from the Liddell-Scott Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon. The Greek-English Lexicon is entered from the Links menu, from the Gateway via the Tools & References icon, and from the Related Tools pop-up menu in the various Philological Tools.
Task: Look up the meaning of aéd‹v in Pindar's First Olympian.
Go to Pindar First Olympian in the Primary Texts by choosing Lookup from the Links menu. Type Pind. O. 1.1 into the box and press Return.
Select the Greek word aéd‹somen in line 7. Click Analyze. On the Morphological Analysis window, highlight the dictionary entry aéd‹v, then choose Greek-English Lexicon from the Related Tools pop-up menu.
Alternatively you can look up dictionary entries directly if you know the dictionary form, and you have SMK GreekKeys installed in your system, allowing you to type in accented Greek. Click the Entry box to make the insertion point appear. Type in the word, then click Look Up to see a definition of the word.
The Greek-English Lexicon displays the entry for a word as it appears in the Liddell-Scott Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon. The first field displays the definitions.
The buttons See Previous Entry and See Following Next Entry move backward and forward in the Lexicon.
The "Derived From" field lists the derivation of the current entry given by the Liddell-Scott Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon. This will be the word or brief phrase enclosed in parentheses at the beginning of the LSJ article. Thus in the following print entry:
aéd‹v, impf. hëdvn: . . . (aéd®): I. c. acc. rei, 1. to utter sounds, speak, Il., Eur. ktl.
aéd® appears in Perseus as in the Derived From field. To see the dictionary entry for aéd®, highlight the word and select the Greek-English Lexicon from the Links menu.
Note that Perseus does not always include derivations in the "Derived From" field. Consider, for example, the following entry from the the print dictionary:
kun‹v = kunÛzv, to play the Cynic, Luc. The "= kunÛzv" indicates a homonymous relationship, i.e., the verb kun‹v has the same meaning as kunÛzv. In Perseus, the "= kunÛzv" reference will appear in the Derived From field.
The other three fields in the Greek-English Lexicon window include information generated from, but not explicit in, the print version of the lexicon to help you make connections between words.
The Source For field lists words produced by the Entry word. In the example above, aéd‹v is given as derived from aéd®. In turn, aéd‹v produces the word Žnaædhtow. Click on Žnaædhtow go to its dictionary entry.
The field Other Possible Forms in the Lexicon, bottom left, lists forms of the current dictionary entry that appear in other dictionary articles. Thus, when you look up aéd® in the Greek-English Lexicon, the Other Possible Forms are aéd‹n, aéd® and aéd®n. To find the dictionary entry dictionary entry under which aéd‹n appears, click aéd‹n. The forms aëv and prof¡rv are displayed in the field Form occurs in, lower right. This means that the form aéd‹n appears in the definitions under the entries for aëv and prof¡rv, and is used in an idiomatic citation. To go to the dictionary entry, double click a word from the Form Occurs In field.
Related Philological Tools From the Greek-English Lexicon window, the Related Tools suggest the following options.
- Morphological Analysis--use this tool to analyze an inflected form in one of the definitions;
- Greek Word Search--use this tool to find citations in a given author of the dictionary entry form which you have selected with the mouse;
- English-Greek Word Search--use this tool to see which other Greek dictionary articles contain an English word which you have selected with the mouse;
- Greek Word Frequencies--use this tool to calculate frequencies for dictionary entry form which you have selected with the mouse.
Limitations
The Greek-English Lexicon is based on the Liddell-Scott Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon. We have definitions for c. 35,000 words, but the Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon is not exhaustive and thus there are a number of words in Perseus for which the Lexicon has no definitions.
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Greek Word Search
The Greek Word Search tool allows you to search for Greek words in Perseus texts. It contains features which represent a significant improvement over the basic string searching to which classicists have become accustomed, because it draws on the morphological database to give all inflected forms in the results, even those from a different stem.
Task: Find forms of f¡rv in Aeschylus.
Enter the Greek Word Search via the Links menu, the Tools & References button on the Gateway, or the Related Tools pop-up menu. Type f¡rv into the Look For box. Choose Aeschylus from the pop-up menu of authors and click Do Search. All instances of f¡rv in Aeschylus are displayed below. Note forms from the future and aorist stems appearing in the results. To go to a passage, select a citation, right, and click Go To Text.
Search Type
There are several options for performing searches, obtained from the pop-up menu Search Type. With the item All Forms from a Dictionary Entry, which shows up by default as Dictionary Entry, you can search for all forms of a word in an author. The items Forms with These Starting Characters and Forms with These Ending Characters allow you to perform searches for forms that match a word's beginning or ending series of letters. With the item Forms with this Substring, you can search for words sharing the matching string in any position in the word. To perform the search, click the button Do Search.
Options
When the search is complete, the Options pop-up menu will appear, which presents you with a variety of ways to sort and classify the search results and author citations.
The item Citations for All Forms brings up a list of all citations in Perseus for the targeted word. To go to one of the cited passages, select it and click the button Go To Text, upper right.
To retrieve citations for just one form, select it and choose Citations for Selected Form from the Options pop-up menu. To go to one of the cited passages, select it and click the button Go To Text, upper right.
To parse a form, select it and choose Morphological Analysis for Selected Form from the Options pop-up menu. The list of forms can be sorted alphabetically, by frequency or with the ambiguous forms at the top. Choose Sort Forms by Frequency, Sort Forms Alphabetically or Show Ambiguous Firms First. To discard one of the forms from the list of results, select it and choose Delete Selected Form.
Statistical Information
When a search has been performed, the Greek Word Search produces a line of statistics about the instances and frequency of the dictionary form of the word in the selected author's works. There are 31 forms derived from f¡rv in the works of Aeschylus. "Words in Perseus" represents the total number of words in Aeschylus in the Perseus database, 40,085. The Maximum Instances (59) is the same as the Minimum, because there are no ambiguous forms. Frequency is the number of instances per 10,000 words: Maximum (i.e., ambiguous plus unambiguous) and Minimum (unambiguous forms only) both 14.72 occurrences per 10,000 words of Aeschylus. Now try a search for peÛyv, and notice instances of ambiguous forms.
To see similar statistics (i.e., Maximum and Minimum Instances and Frequency per 10,000 words) on a particular word among all the Primary Text authors, use the tool Greek Word Frequencies, available under the pop-up menu Related Tools, upper right.
Related Philological Tools
The Greek Word Search is linked with the other Philological Tools via the Related Tools pop-up menu in the upper right. If you select Greek text from the Greek Word Search, then choose Morphological Analysis, Greek-English Lexicon or Greek Word Frequencies from the Related Tools pop-up menu, the new tool will apply itself to the selection.
Limitations
- Global searches (i.e., searches for a word in all Perseus authors) have not yet been implemented. Until the software is developed, we suggest that you use the Greek Word Frequencies tool (described below) to see in what authors a word shows up, then use Greek Word Search, proceding author by author.
- Some of the most common words in Greek are not indexed: Neither Greek Word Search (nor the Greek Words in Proximity Search) search Greek texts directly. Instead, they rely upon indexes of the Perseus texts. To limit the size of the indexes, some of the most common words have not been included (see the table below). If you wish to study these words, you must use Pandora or some other search tool for the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae.
- n
- Žll'
- Žll‹
- Žpñ
- aétñw
- d'
- d¡
- d®
- di‹
- ¦ti
- ¤k
- ¤n
- ¤pÛ
- eÞ
- eÞw
- g‹r
- ²
- ³
- kaÛ
- kat‹
- m¡n
- met‹
- m®
- õ
- ÷
- oß
- oé
- oéd¡
- oék
- perÛ
- prñw
- t‹
- te
- t®n
- t°w
- t»
- ti
- tiw
- tñ
- tñn
- toæw
- toè
- tÇn
- t"
- Éw
Pandora 2.5.2 for the Macintosh and SMK GreekKeys are available from
Scholars' Press Customer Service
P.O. Box 133089
Atlanta, GA 30333-3089
888/747-2354 or 404/727-2354; FAX 404/727-2348
scholars@emory.edu
For information on the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae cd-rom, please contact
TLG Project
3450 Berkeley Place
University of California Irvine,
Irvine, CA 92697-5550
949/824-7031; FAX 949/824-8434
tlg@uci.edu www.uci.edu:80-tlg
- Lexical Ambiguity
Remember that Perseus makes no attempt to determine whether a form such as aÞsxænú is from the noun aÞsxænh or the verb aÞsxænv. Thus, the form aÞsxænú will show up in searches for both the noun aÞsxænh and the verb aÞsxænv.
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Greek Words in Proximity
This tool allows you to locate passages in which any form from one list of dictionary entries appears within a given number of words of a form from a second list of dictionary entries.
The Greek Words in Proximity tool is available from the Links menu, the Tools & References button in the Gateway and the Related Tools pop-up menu. The tool itself uses two windows: the window appearing first (Greek Words in Proximity) contains the author lists, operating buttons and results fields; the second window (Edit Lists) contains fields and buttons for entering and editing search lists.
An overview of how to use the Greek Words in Proximity tool is given in the next two paragraphs. Examples of searches are given below. From the Greek Words in Proximity window, go to the Edit Lists window by clicking the button Enter/Edit Dictionary Lists. Type or paste in your choices into Lists 1 and 2, and return to the first card by clicking Done, lower right.
Now choose an author from the author list on the Greek Words in Proximity window. To perform the search, click Do Search. Results appear in the field below, along with statistics. To go to a citation, select it and click the button Go To Text.
N. B. Greek Words in Proximity will only work with the properly accented dictionary entry of the words to be searched.
Task: Find the words m°niw and tÛyhmi within a proximity of 10 words in Homer.
Go to the Greek Words in Proximity tool by choosing this item from the Links menu. To bring up the Edit Lists window, click the button Enter/Edit Dictionary Lists. If Lists 1 and 2 contain words from a previous search, click the buttons Clear List 1 and Clear List 2.
If you are equipped to type accented Greek, put the cursor into the field of List 1 and type m°niw, then put the cursor into the field of List 2 and type tÛyhmi. Click Done.
If you cannot type accented Greek with GreekKeys, or if you are unsure of the proper accent and spelling, choose Greek Dictionary Entry Search from the Links menu. Place the cursor in the Look Up field, type mhnis (no accents, no final sigma). Make sure that that the setting This Word Only appears as the kind of Dictionary Entry Search to make. Click Look Up, then copy and paste m°niw into List 1 of the Edit Lists window. Follow the same proceedure for tÛyhmi in List 2.
N. B. If you have selected a form from one of the Primary Texts in Perseus, m°nin for example, you can obtain the dictionary entry by clicking the button Analyze.
Now that your list of words to search is complete, click Done, lower right. Now choose Homer from the Author pop-up menu, type 10 into the box Current Range and click Do Search. Perseus will find three citations for m°niw in proximity with tÛyhmi in Homer.
In the first citation, a form of m°niw occurs within ten words of the form of tÛyhmi; in the second citation, they are within a range of eight words. To go to one of the cited passages, select it and click Go To Text.
Note that Perseus displays a variety of statistics. In Greek, inflected forms may be ambiguous, deriving from one lemma or another (e.g., the form m®nhw could come from either m°niw or the Ionic word m®nh, "moon.") Accordingly, the numbers 22 and 16 following m°niw mean that forms of that word appear in Homer a maximum of twenty-two times (i.e., not counting ambiguities) and a minimum of sixteen times (i.e., eliminating ambiguous forms).
Task: Find a list of Greek words associated with the concept "revolt" and a list of words associated with the concept "persuade" within a proximity of 10 words in Thucydides.
You will use the English-Greek Word Search feature to generate lists of words to search. (This tool is described in greater detail below.)
N. B. If you already have the Greek Words in Proximity open from the previous exercise, please close it.
Choose the item English-Greek Word Search from the Links menu. Type "revolt" into the Look Up field and click the button Look Up. Now choose Greek Words in Proximity from the Related Tools pop-up menu. Perseus will copy the list of Greek words into the field Dictionary Entries in List 1.
Follow the same procedure in the English-Greek Word List for "persuade" to obtain a list of "persuade" words. (The "persuade" words will be saved in a new "Greek Words in Proximity" window; remember to cut and paste using the Enter/Edit Dictionary Entry Lists key, in order to put the "persuade" words in the field Dictionary Entries in List 2.)
The Greek words in the two lists are drawn from entries in the Liddell-Scott Intermediate Lexicon containing the English words "revolt" and "persuade" in their definitions. There will not always be a close connection between words on the list and the meaning targeted. In some cases, you may want to edit your lists.
Choose Thucydides from the Authors pop-up menu, set the span of words to be searched to 10 in the Current Range box, and click Do Search. Fifteen citations will appear in the field below, to which you can go by selecting one and clicking Go To Text.
Statistics
In List 1, Žpñstasiw is a dictionary entry. 30 is the maximum number of occurrences in Thucydides (including ambiguous forms), and 25 is the minimum number of occurrences in Thucydides (subtracting ambiguous forms). For List 1 Totals, Max=246 means that for the 10 words associated with "revolt," the maximum number of forms found in Thucydides is 246 (disregarding ambiguous forms), and Min=221 means that for the same list, the minimum number of forms is 221 (subtracting ambiguous forms). Further statistics are in the lower left. Words in Author means that for the author Thucydides there are 150,141 words in the database. For the matches in this search, the maximum number is 15 (disregarding ambiguous forms), and the minimum is 9 (subtracting ambiguous forms).
Options
When the search is completed, an Options pop-up menu appears, lower left, with various ways to sort the search results.
Show Closest Matches First will display the citations starting with those whose words are closest in proximity. Show Ambiguous Matches First will display the citations starting with those containing ambiguous forms. Show Definite Matches First will display the citations starting with those which are not ambiguous. Sort by Appearence in Author will display the citations by line, book or section from first to last in the Author.
With HyperCard Perseus, search results had been limited to 30,000 characters. With Platform Independent Perseus, however, it is now possible to perform a search in Thucydides for words ending in -siw within a range of five words of those ending with -‹v (both over 700). The search produces results of 69 matching citations.
N. B. Some of the most frequently occurring words in Greek have not been indexed. That means that the Greek Words in Proximity tool will not work with words such as kaÛ and Žll‹. For a list of these words, see Table above.
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English-Greek Word Search
The English-Greek Word Search is designed to search the Greek lexicon for words whose definitions contain a selected word or string. Because you can use this tool to find Greek terms for English concepts, it converts the Greek-English Lexicon into a rough but very powerful English-Greek lexicon. The tool is based on the entries in the Liddell-Scott Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon.
Not every English word in each dictionary entry has been indexed. (A list of the 191 "stop words" will be found at the end of this section.) The English-Greek Word Search will find words only in the actual English definition: in general, words that are italicized in the print dictionary.
If you choose the English-Greek Word Search via the Links menu, you must enter a search string when the tool appears. If you choose English-Greek Word Search via the Related Tools pop-up menu within another Philological Tool and have already selected a word, that word will automatically activate the English-Greek Word Search.
Look Up Box
Use the box next to the Look Up button to enter the English word or string. If the English-Greek Word Search is showing previous results, they will be cleared with the new search. Click Look Up to perform the search.
The string or word you type in must not include any spaces. The English-Greek Word Search tool will only look up one-word strings.
Type of Search
Items in this pop-up menu define the string to be searched. This Word Only searches for precise words wherein the word and string are identical (e.g., "household"). Forms With These Starting Characters searches for words that begin with a given string (e.g., "house-"). Forms With These Ending Characters searches for words that end with a given string (e.g., "-hold"). Forms With This Substring searches for words that contain an embedded string (e.g., "-use-").
Task: Look up several kinds of strings with the English-Greek Word Search tool.
Type "household" into the Look Up box (if you haven't already done so). Choose the item This Word Only from the Search As pop-up menu, then click Look Up. The result of the search is displayed in the text field on the lower left of the screen. The word "household" appears in the definitions of 19 Greek words, which appear in the left column. The search does not necessarily find text that is a direct translation of the selected word; instead, the search identifies Greek words that contain the selected English text in their definitions.
Now try the English-Greek Word Search for the string "house" (do not include a hyphen) with the search type set to Forms With These Starting Characters. The starting characters house- begin 52 English words, which occur in 185 dictionary entries.
Try searches for the ending strings -hold and those containing -use-. Searches for extremely common English substrings, such as -st-, will take longer.
Options
Choose Resort List from the Options pop-up menu to put the list in approximate Greek alphabetical order. To condense the list, choose Resort List and Merge Duplicates. You can eliminate less interesting entries by editing the results. Since you can select dictionary entries and call up their English definitions from the Greek-English Lexicon, you can even use this tool with little or no knowledge of Greek.
Related Tools
From the Related Tools menu, you can access the definitions of individual Greek dictionary entries by selecting them and then calling up the Greek-English Lexicon, or you can find author-by-author citations with the Greek Word Search tool.
You can also work directly with the entire list of dictionary entries that you have generated. By going to either of the two Greek Word Frequency tools, you can see how often all of "household" words appear in different authors. You could thus begin to see whether this concept seems to be more or less common in different authors. (Words associated with "household" show up with twice the frequency in Aeschylus than they do in Sophocles, and 2 1/3 times as often in Euripides as they do in Sophocles.)
If you use the Related Tools to call up the Greek Words in Proximity Search, you can add the entire list of dictionary entries for "household" to one of the two lists. You could thus use the English-Greek Word Search to set up a search for dictionary entries that contain "household" in their definition within 5 words of dictionary entries that contain "guest" in their definition.
Stop Words
The following English words were not indexed, and are not searchable with the English-Greek Word Search:
a about above accordingly after again against ah all also although always am an and and/or any anymore anyone are as at away b be been begin beginning beginnings begins begone begun being below between but by c ca can cannot come could d did do doing during each either else end et etc even ever far ff following for fro from further get go go goes going got had has have he her hers herself him himself his how i if in into is it its itself last lastly less ll many may me might more must my myself nay near nearly never new next no not now o of off often oh on only or other otherwise our ourselves out over perhaps put puts quite s said saw say see seen shall she should since so some such t than that the their them themselves then there therefore these they this those thou though throughout thus to too toward unless until up upon us ve very was we were what whatever when where which while who whom whomever whose why with within without would yes your yours yourself yourselves
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Greek Dictionary Entry Search
The Greek Dictionary Entry Search searches the Entry headers of the Greek-English Lexicon for occurrences of a Greek character string as the starting or ending string of a word or anywhere within a word. This tool is especially helpful in ascertaining the correct dictionary spelling and accentuation of a Greek form.
N. B. It is not necessary to enter accents and breathings in order to use this tool.
Look Up box
Enter a string to use in the Look Up box, if a word is not currently showing. Click Look Up to produce the list of words. The results appear in the field lower left.
A dictionary entry may be selected and pasted into a field where a lemma is required (in Greek Word Search, for example). You may also link with one of the related Philological Tools. The pop-up menu right of the Look Up box gives you three ways to specify where in a word the string occurs: Words With These Starting Characters, Words With These Ending Characters, and Words With This Substring.
Related Philological Tools
The Greek Dictionary Entry Search is linked with the other Philological Tools via the pop-up menu, upper right. If you select text from the list of dictionary Entries before choosing another tool, the new tool will apply itself to the selection. Thus you can copy over the dictionary form of a Greek word to the following tools: Greek Word Search, Greek English Lexicon, Greek Word Frequencies (Overview and By Author) and Greek Words in Proximity.
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Greek Word Frequencies and Greek Word Freqs by Author
The Greek Word Frequencies tools display the frequencies with which a particular Greek word, or a list of words, is used among all the authors of Primary Texts. The Greek Word Freqs By Author tool displays the frequencies with which a particular Greek word, or a list of words, is used in one Primary Text author. Both tools are accessed from the Links menu and from the Related Tools pop-up menu on the other Philological Tools.
N. B. You must enter the dictionary form of the word(s) for these tools to perform their calculations.
If you have opened either of these tools from another philological tool, the current list of Greek words is placed in a scrolling field at the left. Each Greek Word Frequencies tool applies itself to the first word in the list which appears in the field at the top.
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Greek Word Frequencies
Type áppow into the Calculate frequencies box and click Do Calculation to compute the number of occurences of the common word for "horse" in Perseus authors.
Task: Calculate frequencies in Perseus of words associated with "horse."
A list of words associated with "horse" may be produced by the English-Greek Word Search tool; for this procedure see above. Choose Greek Word Frequencies from the Related Tools pop-up menu, and the list will be transferred and processed by the Greek Word Frequencies tool.
N. B. You can edit the list of associated words before choosing Greek Word Frequencies from the Related Tools pop-up menu.
Do Calculation
Calculate frequencies for the whole list by choosing the (default) item Calculate for All Entries in List from the pop-up menu Do Calculation. Calculate frequencies for a single word by choosing the item Calculate for Selected Entry.
View Data
The pop-up menu View Data offers three ways in which to organize your results. The option Sort Authors Alphabetically is the default. To group authors by literary type (Tragedy, Comedy, History, etc.), choose Sort Authors By Type of Literature. To see results chronologically by author, choose the item Sort Authors By Author Date. To sort authors by the frequency of occurrences of this (or these) words, choose the item Sort Authors by Frequency.
Statistical Information
The information for each author includes the total words in all works of the author catalogued in Perseus and the statistical reports for any possible use of the word (Maximum) and all definite uses of the word (Minimum). Instances are the number of times the word is used throughout the author's work. Frequency is the number of instances a word is used per 10,000 words.
Related Philological Tools
The Greek Word Frequencies tool is linked with the other Philological Tools via the Related Tools pop-up menu, upper right. If you select text from the word list before choosing another tool, the new tool will apply itself to the selection. Select a word for which frequencies are displayed and choose Greek Word Search for citations in an author and Greek-English Lexicon for the definition. For Greek Word Freqs by Author (described below), select a word or group of words to be searched; if no selection is made, Perseus will copy the entire list to Greek Word Freqs by Author.
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Greek Word Freqs by Author
The description Greek Word Freqs by Author tool continues with the example of a list of words associated with "horse."
You can copy a list of Greek words associated with an English word (in this case, "horse") from the English-Greek Word Search into Greek Word Freqs by Author by choosing this item from the Related Tools pop-up menu. For details on this proceedure, see above. You can edit this list by selecting and deleting text, or you can type in a list of your own with correct accents and breathings.
The current author is displayed in the pop-up menu, upper left. The example will continue with words associated with "horse" in Demosthenes. (The orators as a group use a low frequency rate of "horse" words.)
Calculate Frequencies
You can calculate word frequencies for this author only, or calculate for all entries in the full list. To see a list of only those words associated with "horse" in Demosthenes, choose the item Calculate for Entries in this Author from the Calculate Frequencies pop-up menu.
The choice Use Dictionary Entries in Full List will include words from the list of words associated with "horse" not used by Demosthenes.
Options
Three ways of sorting your results appear under the Options pop-up menu. To display the results in order from the most commonly used words to the least, choose Sort Most Common to Least. To display the results in reverse order, choose Sort Least Common to Most. To display the results alphabetically, choose Sort Alphabetically.
Related Philological Tools
The Greek Word Freqs by Author tool is linked with the other Philological Tools via the Related Tools pop-up menu, upper right. If you select text from the word list before choosing another tool, the new tool will apply itself to the selection. Select a word from the list and choose Greek Word Search for citations in an author and Greek English Lexicon for the definition. If you make no selection and choose Greek Word Frequencies, Perseus will copy the full list to it.
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